Learn You a GPU For Great Good! (Part 1?)

Side note: I stole the title from the most famous, most awesome Haskell book I know.

If you are reading this blog you are most likely interested in cryptography. Today I want to convince you that GPUs are also, well, pretty awesome. I have personally done a few crypto-related projects using GPUs and this post is my attempt at crystallizing the knowledge and experience I built up during that time.

The purpose of this post is to provide a simple, meaningful introduction to developing GPU-accelerated programs. We will discuss setup, the two primary frameworks, basic code examples and development workflow as well as some optimization tips. In the end, I want to show that developing this type of application is not hard at all. If the post is successful I may do a follow-up with a few more detailed and tricky examples. Throughout this post I will assume you are familiar with basic C and/or C++, as the code examples will be in that language. I will not focus too much on develop complicated kernels or how to exploit multi-dimensional parallelism, I will leave that for a later post. Instead, I will focus on a few things that may help you in making the firsts steps towards GPU programming easier, as well as a few things that may help it scale a bit better.

The Why & When

GPU programming was originally designed for, and should be used for, large-scale parallel computation problems. The more parallelism you can utilize, the better GPUs will fit your problem. The most simple example is probably when you loop over a very large collection of elements, performing on each a simple operation independently.

For large-scale parallel computation problems I tend to think of three different architectural setups that you can use (they also mix). The simplest is utilizing multi-core CPUs (possibly over many machines). This has the shortest development time due to its familiarity and easy-of-use and is suitable to many applications. CPUs are of course trivially available. On the other end of the spectrum is the development of custom hardware clusters, utilizing many FPGAs or even ASICs. Development time is fairly long, even for experienced hardware designers; the upside is that this very likely gives you optimal performance.

GPUs fall somewhere in the middle. Development time is very close to that for CPUs; the primary constraint is availability. It is simply easier to get access to CPU clusters. However, these days you can also rent all the GPU power you need from Amazon EC2 instances, as was done for the recent SHA1 collision. If you solve the availability issue, you can get a lot of bang out of your buck performance-wise.

The How

First, you need to get your hands on a machine with a GPU, preferably a remote machine or otherwise a machine with more than one GPU. The reason is that if your GPU is also driving your desktop environment, programming errors may cause your computer to hang or crash. It also allows you to more easily run long-lasting kernels as well as giving you more reliable performance.

CUDA vs OpenCL

Assuming you have a GPU in your system, your next choice is between CUDA and OpenCL, two programming environments for GPU programming. If you do not plan to use an NVIDIA GPU you are stuck with OpenCL, whereas you otherwise have the choice of using CUDA.
Having used both for different projects at different times, I can say that both are perfectly usable and that the differences are mostly superficial. OpenCL is more portable and integrates easier into existing projects; CUDA has the superior tool-chain.

The examples in this post will be for CUDA, as it typically involves less boilerplate. Also, we will use the more basic CUDA C++ implementation, as it provides a better basis for understanding than special-purpose libraries. This is particularly relevant if you want to computations that are not a native part of these libraries, which is definitely true if you want to, for instance, compute CPA-like correlations in parallel.

Hello World

I am not one to break tradition and thus we start the "Hello world" of classic parallel programming, namely SAXPY. Or, more formally, given input vectors \(\textbf{x}, \textbf{y}\) of length \(n\) and a scalar \(a\), compute the output vector \(\textbf{z}\) where \(\textbf{z} = a\textbf{x} + \textbf{y}\).
First let us consider the basic C implementation of this function, where \(z = y\), i.e., we update \(y\) using the scalar \(a\) and a vector \(x\).

 1: void saxpy(int n, float a, float * __restrict__ x, float * __restrict__ y) {
 2:   for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
 3:     y[i] = a*x[i] + y[i];
 4:   }
 5: }
 6: 
 7: // ...
 8: int n = 1 << 20;
 9: // allocate vectors x,y of n elements each.
10: // ...
11: 
12: saxpy(n, 3.14, x, y);

Nothing too special going on here. We simply iterate over every element and perform our update with the scalar \(a=3.14\). Note the use of the __restrict__ keyword to indicate that x and y point to different objects in memory. Just giving the compiler a helping hand, which is generally a useful thing to do. Anything that makes it behave less like a random function, I say.

Conversion to CUDA is straightforward. In GPU programming you are always defining what a single parallel unit of computation is doing, this is called a kernel. When programming such a kernel, you are computing from the point of view of the thread. Before delving in too deep, let us see what the CUDA-equivalent code looks like.

 1: __global__
 2: void saxpy(int n, float a, float * __restrict__ x, float * __restrict__ y) {
 3:   int i = blockIdx.x*blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;
 4:   if (i < n) {
 5:     y[i] = a*x[i] + y[i];
 6:   }
 7: }
 8: 
 9: // ...
10: const int n = 1<<20;
11: 
12: // allocate and initialize host-side buffers x,y
13: // ...
14: 
15: // allocate device-side buffers x,y
16: cudaMalloc((void **)&d_x, sizeof(float) * n);
17: cudaMalloc((void **)&d_y, sizeof(float) * n);
18: 
19: // copy host-side buffers to the device
20: cudaMemcpy(d_x, x, sizeof(float) * n, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);
21: cudaMemcpy(d_y, y, sizeof(float) * n, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice);
22: 
23: // compute the saxpy
24: const int threads_per_block = 256;
25: const int number_of_blocks = n / threads_per_block;
26: saxpy<<<number_of_blocks, threads_per_block>>>(n, 3.14, d_x, d_y);
27: 
28: // copy the output buffer from the device to the host
29: cudaMemcpy(y, d_y, sizeof(float) * n, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost);
30: 
31: // free the device buffers
32: cudaFree(d_x);
33: cudaFree(d_y);
34: 
35: // clean up the x, y host buffers
36: // ...

Let us consider the kernel first, denoted by the simple fact of the function definition starting with __global__. The parameters to the function are the same as before, nothing special there. Line 3 is a key first step in any kernel: we need to figure out the correct offset into our buffers x and y. To understand this, we need to understand CUDA's notion of threads and blocks (or work groups and work items in OpenCL).

The Grid
The CUDA threading model is fairly straightforward to imagine. A thread essentially computes a single instance of a kernel. These threads form groups called blocks that have somewhat-more-efficient inter-thread communication primitives. The blocks together form what is known as the grid. The grid can have up to three dimensions, i.e., the blocks can be ordered into \((x,y, z)\) coordinates. The same goes for threads inside a block, they can be addressed with \((x, y, z)\) coordinates as well.

Mostly though, I have tended to stick to 1-dimensional grids. This is simply dividing a vector of \(n\) elements into $n/m$-sized sequential blocks (even better if \(n\) is a multiple of \(m\)). 

A quick note about warps (or wavefronts in OpenCL), which is a related concept. A warp is a unit of scheduling, it determines the amount of threads that actually execute in lockstep. It is good practice to have your block size as a multiple of the warp size but other than that you should not worry overly much about warps.

In this case we find our thread by multiplying the block id with the size of block and then adding the offset of the thread within the block. The rest of the kernel is straightforward, we simply perform the same computation as in the original code but we omit the for-loop. The conditional at line 4 makes sure we do not write outside the bounds of our vector, though that should not happen if we choose our grid carefully.

The rest of the code is the standard boilerplate that you will find in most CUDA programs. A key notion is that there is a distinction between buffers allocated on the device (the GPU) and buffers allocated on the host. Note that on line 26 we schedule the kernel for execution. The first two weird-looking parameters (within angle brackets) are the number of blocks and the block size respectively.

Improving & Testing "Hello World"

To showcase a few things that I found helpful we are going to improve this simple code example. And because this is my blog post and I decide what is in it, I get to talk to you about how to test your code. GPU code tends to be a bit flaky: it breaks easily. Thus, I argue that creating simple tests for your code is essential. These do not have to be very complicated but I recommend that you use a proper framework for writing unit tests. For C++ I have had success with Catch and doctest, both single-headers that you include into your project.

Before we include these tests however, I propose that we make two more changes to the program. First of all, we are going to add better error checking. Most of the cudaFoo functions return a value indicating whether the operation was successful. Otherwise, we get something which we can use to determine the error.

1: #define check(e) { _check((e), __FILE__, __LINE__); }
2: 
3: inline cudaError_t _check(cudaError_t result, const char *file, int line) {
4:   if (result != cudaSuccess) {
5:     fprintf(stderr, "CUDA Runtime Error: %s (%s:%d)\n", cudaGetErrorString(result), file, line);
6:     assert(result == cudaSuccess);
7:   }
8:   return result;
9: }

And then simply wrap the cudaFoo functions with this check macro. Alternatively, you may want to rewrite this to use exceptions instead of asserts. Pick your poison.

Another thing I would recommend adding if you are doing CUDA in C++ is wrapping most of the allocation and de-allocation logic in a class. I generally take a more utilitarian view of classes for simple pieces of code and thus the following is not necessarily idiomatic or good C++ code.

 1: class Saxpy {
 2: public:
 3:   const int n;
 4:   float *d_x;
 5:   float *d_y;
 6:   float *x;
 7:   float *y;
 8: 
 9:   Saxpy(const int n) : n(n) {
10:     x = new float[n];
11:     y = new float[n];
12: 
13:     check(cudaMalloc((void **)&d_x, sizeof(float) * n));
14:     check(cudaMalloc((void **)&d_y, sizeof(float) * n));
15:   }
16: 
17:   ~Saxpy() {
18:     check(cudaFree(d_x));
19:     check(cudaFree(d_y));
20: 
21:     delete[] x;
22:     delete[] y;
23:   }
24: 
25:   Saxpy& fill() {
26:     for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
27:       x[i] = i / 12.34;
28:       y[i] = i / 56.78;
29:     }
30: 
31:     check(cudaMemcpy(d_x, x, sizeof(float) * n, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice));
32:     check(cudaMemcpy(d_y, y, sizeof(float) * n, cudaMemcpyHostToDevice));
33: 
34:     return *this;
35:   }
36: 
37:   Saxpy& run(float a) {
38:     const int threads_per_block = 256;
39:     const int number_of_blocks = n / threads_per_block;
40:     saxpy<<<number_of_blocks, threads_per_block>>>(n, a, d_x, d_y);
41: 
42:     return *this;
43:   }
44: 
45:   Saxpy& load() {
46:     check(cudaDeviceSynchronize());
47:     check(cudaMemcpy(y, d_y, sizeof(float) * n, cudaMemcpyDeviceToHost));
48:     return *this;
49:   }
50: };

Why we went through all this trouble becomes clear if we put this in a test (I am using doctest syntax as an example).

 1: TEST_CASE("testing saxpy") {
 2:   float a = 3.14;
 3:   const int n = 1024;
 4:   Saxpy s(n);
 5: 
 6:   s.fill().run(a).load();
 7: 
 8:   for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
 9:     // we didn't keep the old y values so we recompute them here
10:     float y_i = i / 56.78;
11:     // the approx is because floating point comparison is wacky
12:     CHECK(s.y[i] == doctest::Approx(a * s.x[i] + y_i));
13:   }
14: }

That is a, for C++ standards, pretty concise test. And indeed, our tests succeed. Yay.

===============================================================================
[doctest] test cases:    1 |    1 passed |    0 failed |    0 skipped
[doctest] assertions: 1024 | 1024 passed |    0 failed |

A Final Improvement

Because this post is already too long I will conclude with one last really nice tip that I absolutely did not steal from here. Actually, the NVIDIA developer blogs contain a lot of really good CUDA tips.
Our current kernel is perfectly capable of adapting to a situation where we give it less data than the grid can support. However, if we give it more data, things will break. This is where gride-stride loops come in. It works by looping over the data one grid at a time while maintaining coalesced memory access (which is something I will write about next time).

Here's our new kernel using these kinds of loops.

1: __global__
2: void saxpy(int n, float a, float *x, float *y) {
3:   for (int i = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x; i < n; i += blockDim.x * gridDim.x) {
4:     y[i] = a * x[i] + y[i];
5:   }
6: }

Conclusion

I hope this convinces you that GPU programming is actually pretty simple. The kernel here is pretty trivial, but as long as you understand that within the kernel you can basically write C/C++, you are going to do just fine.

If there is a next post I will write more about memory in GPUs, a very important topic if you want your code to actually run fast. If you want to skip ahead you should read about the different types of memory (global, local, shared, texture, etc.) and what memory coalescing entails.

Until next time.

What are lattices?

Do all the cool post-quantum cryptographers around you talk about lattices and all you can think about is a good salad?

Don't worry! You can be part of the hip crowd at the next cocktail party in just three easy steps!
 

First, I will tell you what a lattice is. It is actually really easy.
Second, we will prove a tiny fact about lattices so that those poor neurons that did all the work in the first step have some friends.
Third, nothing. There isn't even a third step. That's how easy it is!

So, let's tackle the first step. What, actually, is a lattice?
The answer could not be easier. It is simply a grid of points. Like this:

Easy, right?
The formal definition is just as simple:

Given $n$ linearly independent vectors $b_1, b_2, \ldots, b_n \in \mathbb{R}^m$, the lattice generated by them is defined as
\[
\mathcal{L}(b_1, b_2, \ldots, b_n) = \left\{ \sum x_i b_i \middle| x_i \in \mathbb{Z} \right\}.
\]

We can add those so called basis vectors $b_i$ to our diagram and will readily see how each point is constructed.

And now you already know what a lattice is! In the next step we will talk about some more definitions and show the proof of a theorem.

We will be discussing something related to the question of what the length of the shortest non-zero vector in a given lattice $\mathcal{L}$ is.

Definition:

$\lambda_1(\mathcal{L})$ is the length of the shortest non-zero vector in $\mathcal{L}$. We use the euclidean norm for the definition of length.

And we also need the volume of a lattice which we are not going to define formally we will just take it to be the volume of that $n$ dimensional parallelogram in the picture:

Now we can already prove Blichfeld's Theorem! It makes a statement about where we can find a lattice point and roughly goes as follows:

For a lattice $\mathcal{L}\subseteq \mathbb{R}^n$ and a set $S \subseteq \mathbb{R}^n$ where the volume of $S$ is bigger than the volume of the lattice there exist two nonequal points $z_1, z_2 \in S$ such that $z_1 - z_2 \in \mathcal{L}$.

And here is the idea of the proof in a graphical way! First we simply draw an example for the set $S$ in blue:

Now we cut up our set and move all the parts into our first parallelogram!

As you can see there is quite a bit of overlap and the fact that the full volume of the set is bigger than the volume of the lattice aka the parallelogram guarantees there will be at least some overlap somewhere. But if there is overlap then we have two points, that have been moved by multiples of the base vectors and which are now at the same position!

And therefore their difference must be a multiple of base vectors as well and we have found a difference which is a lattice point! Hooray!

Now we will use a little trick to expand this result and make a statement about an actual point from the set being on the lattice not just the difference of two points!

What we will show is called Minkowski's Convex Body Theorem and it states roughly

Let $\mathcal{L}$ be a lattice. Then any centrally-symmetric convex set $S$, with volume bigger than $2^n$ times the volume of the lattice contains a nonzero lattice point.

So after this we will know such a set it will contain a lattice point and using a simple sphere as the set allows us to put a bound on $\lambda_1(\mathcal{L})$.

Let's get to it then!
First we blow up our lattice to twice its size along every dimension!

Now we add our centrally-symmetric convex set $S$. Again in blue.
 

And because we picked the volume of $S$ to be bigger than $2^n$ times the volume of the lattice we still get the colliding points from the last theorem EVEN in the double size lattice!

But since our set $S$ is symmetric about the origin if $z_2 \in S$ it follows that $-z_2 \in S$ and because it is convex $z_1, -z_2 \in S$ implies $\frac{z_1 - z_2}{2} \in S$. And because we've double the size of the lattice and $z_1 - z_2$ is on the bigger lattice it follows that $\frac{z_1 - z_2}{2} \in \mathcal{L}$ and we have shown that a point in our set is also in the lattice.

You can see it quite clearly in the next picture.

As already stated above if we use a simple sphere for this set we can give a bound on $\lambda_1(\mathcal{L})$ based on the volume of $\mathcal{L}$. It is known as Minkowski's First Theorem and states:

 \[
\lambda_1(\mathcal{L}) \leq \sqrt{n}(vol(\mathcal{L})^{1/n}.
\]

Isn't that great?!

If you have now completely fallen in love with lattices but would appreciate real math instead of pictures, worry not!
You will find steps 3 - 14 on Oded Regev's course website! Enjoy!

And in case you accidentally run into him at a conference here is the picture from his website so you don't miss the opportunity to say hello.

GMP - Arithmetic without limitations

Theoretical research in cryptography can be extremely exciting but, on the other hand, a lot of effort should be devoted to correctly and securely implementing cryptosystems that help protect people's privacy. The presence of a bug in a software can be very annoying but if this software deals with crypto and security, then the consequences can be catastrophic.

For many cryptosystems based on number theoretic problems, one of the first issues that a developer faces is the size of the numbers involved in the computations. These numbers are composed of thousands of bits (or hundreds of digits) and they need to be added, multiplied, raised to some powers, etc. Performing these operations is complicated, and doing it efficiently is even more complicated. But thankfully there are tools (libraries) that come to the rescue.

In this post, I will talk about GMP, The GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library. Quoting from the library's homepage, "GMP is a free library for arbitrary precision arithmetic, operating on signed integers, rational numbers, and floating-point numbers. There is no practical limit to the precision except the ones implied by the available memory in the machine GMP runs on. GMP has a rich set of functions, and the functions have a regular interface." This library is written in C but also offers an interface for C++ code, and we are going to focus on this particular one. The final goal of this post will be to implement a simple but complete example of an RSA cryptosystem, from key generation to encryption and decryption of messages.
But, before moving on, a little disclaimer: implementing cryptographic solutions is not an easy task and using homemade solutions is generally considered as not a good idea because of bugs and lack of scrutiny by other members of the community. The sole goal of this post is to show some of the potential of the GMP library.

• Data type -- the basic data type that we will deal with is mpz_class. We can think of it as an arbitrary-sized integer. Some of the functions we will talk about only accepts parameters of type mpz_t, which is the corresponding C type. Luckily, we can always call the function get_mpz_t on a mpz_class object to obtain the corresponding mpz_t object;
• Generating random numbers -- first of all, we consider the problem of generating random numbers with a specific size (measured in bits). GMP offers a function called get_z_bits, that takes in input a number of bits and returns a number with that many bits. But be careful! It means that the returned number takes up to that number of bits. So calling it with argument '3' means that the returned value will be a number between 0 and 7. Instead, what we want is a number that is represented exactly by 3 bits, so 4, 5, 6, or 7. Doing that is quite straightforward: given a number of bits k, we want a random number in the range $\left[2^{k-1}, 2^k\right)$. In order to handle this exponentiation (since $k$ can be very big), we are going to use the function mpz_ui_pow_ui, that raises an unsigned int basis to an unsigned int power and writes the result to a mpz_t object. In order to draw a random number, we are going to initialize a random number generator with this code:
  gmp_randclass rng(gmp_randinit_mt).
  Note: this example uses the Mersenne Twister PRNG, which is known to be insecure for cryptographic applications. After this is done, our function for generating a random number with a specific number of bits can look like the following
  mpz_class generate_rand_exact_bits (const unsigned int size)
  {
      // 2^(size-1)
      mpz_class out;
      mpz_ui_pow_ui(out.get_mpz_t(), 2, size-1);
  
      // 2^(size)
      mpz_class bound;
      mpz_ui_pow_ui(bound.get_mpz_t(), 2, size);
  
      // random offset
      mpz_class rand = rng.get_z_range(bound-out);
  
      return (out + rand);
  }
• Generating prime numbers -- generating random numbers is nice but often not sufficient; we need to generate random-looking prime numbers. This task is obviously harder because there are more constraints that have to be satisfied. Thankfully, GMP comes to the rescue once again: we can in fact take advantage of the function mpz_probab_prime_p that takes as input a mpz_t object that represents the candidate prime and a number that specifies how many times the Miller-Rabin primality test has to be executed, and returns 0 if the candidate is not prime, 1 if it is probably prime and 2 if it is surely prime. Repeating the test 50 times gives a very high degree of confidence on the primality of the candidate, so we are going to generate a random number and test it until we find a candidate that passes all the tests. The code for a function that performs this task can be the following
  mpz_class generate_prime_exact_bits (const unsigned int size)
  {
      mpz_class candidate;
      do {
          candidate = generate_rand_exact_bits(size);
      } while (mpz_probab_prime_p(candidate.get_mpz_t(), REPEAT_MILLER_RABIN) == 0);
      return candidate;
  }
• Modular exponentiation -- the goal of this step is to take a basis $b$, an exponent $e$ and a modulus $m$ and compute $b^e \mod m$. GMP already offers a function called mpz_powm that does what we need, but we can "beautify" it a little bit by wrapping it in another function like the following:
  mpz_class mod_exp (const mpz_class base, const mpz_class exp, const mpz_class mod)
  {
      mpz_class out;
      mpz_powm (out.get_mpz_t(), base.get_mpz_t(), exp.get_mpz_t(), mod.get_mpz_t());
      return out;
  }
• Encryption and decryption -- once we have the function mod_exp for modular exponentiation, RSA encryption and decryption are trivial:
  mpz_class rsa_encrypt (const mpz_class pk, const mpz_class m, const mpz_class mod)
  {
      return mod_exp (m, pk, mod);
  }
  
  
  mpz_class rsa_decrypt (const mpz_class sk, const mpz_class c, const mpz_class mod)
  {
      return mod_exp (c, sk, mod);
  }

Now, we will put everything together and in the main function we will do the following:

1. generate two numbers rsa_p and rsa_q which are prime and composed of an arbitrary (here 2048) number of bits;
2. multiply together rsa_p and rsa_q to obtain the modulus rsa_mod;
3. calculate the Euler's totient function of the modulus by multiplying (rsa_p  -1) and (rsa_q - 1);
4. choose a public exponent rsa_pk: here we are going to use 65537;
5. compute the secret exponent rsa_sk by calculating the multiplicative inverse of rsa_pk modulo rsa_totient. For this task, we can use the function mpz_invert offered by GMP;
6. generate a random 32-bits message;
7. encrypt it and decrypt it to show that the message is recovered correctly

The full code is available here. Assuming that it is saved in a file called main.cpp, it can be compiled with the following command:
g++ -Wall -o main main.cpp -lgmp -lgmpxx

Finally, here is a possible output of the program:

p: 23792449500522212951496314702038682121347194317959904876008718825662914075875899470581320800653437713536069408253411676817620646430212407540403369694134781759107125478056393908946127803961090931948553568336876469309822272887045095561051090700123699901361196085633529272849875353866567000752182158071024473204684307004694765510326847369963753315267894351158697231078788807690227802109570252088084877486698404206015111529669790467025281249212356222609928349702116676081721161733842190421613247070310376995600752548098115546539048072846637620536666595226297844398938704443953343779702008604938853732596401295126782941987

q: 29112805945439121371217246384724375309040486330485414315973357532238818896560861590487525988011993439077520550311524035984480970497774071062272700839286098068182559422588276697743896386738257138746524032717815962171954684796109782069096410172414189261142167684350607916360394902788649692558546060677368837462937413290555419196322614840219369972120722061013641236619226520826654042088554099043918184746705620357166310881550460726728460067235575345180739677700783783242815237362918214982959525838694224404066952951953880663045068810920848575666730532567285210572753317549500155052830379131918899635413209365556429526661

Modulus: 692664965275363134868164310308043386530889977137116066460956916982191344093600913377382983586757778122293014614580541617686926517513948142377215870615527742653194700493457784251321237254925462486660424748287684799960005285232140262663908204076330275297015032277805385557802277182249107190208144962072627103333702166712562912412455374055377823609059561406201023023953754548932692770545184532804691011451566435370564027281954154745605054059335653411252856827668944053539165109486066934327992280592181117681540307774187890207024741310917968286855939570200842820225004987124097822236170460663883584621535528990367892742357001025439624939219952367312627679661863266398010079250545044069312072321631423895274591504669908947731669841676290437961150479342566664751624244101084250756141019398564481030304316812644414619975245318775213481846709606949913834082310037698177108248900032520946078124914227912956069612730720184002438971635446900598624230868985779777067182408067527262398836477646176180149265564531633256045959807480886640631812690951578507074608608075924577570127277599939833799849839997452314926854023853061044555560190656563707831534988797823714162801693363417381512465247240619960211197273430707134124687895683306648515432815407

Totient: 692664965275363134868164310308043386530889977137116066460956916982191344093600913377382983586757778122293014614580541617686926517513948142377215870615527742653194700493457784251321237254925462486660424748287684799960005285232140262663908204076330275297015032277805385557802277182249107190208144962072627103333702166712562912412455374055377823609059561406201023023953754548932692770545184532804691011451566435370564027281954154745605054059335653411252856827668944053539165109486066934327992280592181117681540307774187890207024741310917968286855939570200842820225004987124097822236170460663883584621535528990367892742304095769993663604897238806225864622231475585749564760058562967711410339349194662834205744716004477795118079883111354725159048862414580186148948173567663370928851334497919810423614292621945066549280167717720521050364932649266758956452162536825639219086396668750961940935703957656300852919419991965254045660967825180303374046162336317566884059120678910850226498009948160851632383720333508904913956745247482616068631268540358255880854866759476646002336609572536933340525303598355554521449451080152039954160522951063655835325404680939946676605489966289587929410275548597966757698440898319397266934527673695987832220346760

Message: 2699077189

Ciphertext: 681377152725050864187889498396285584066530595533108416812276566730393956984527765118715661493472361295191987186484833223806930407591255557303290975217436524165953995313143542640632193731686512007342253568013661854913604989704338096439627987512846172004801196181232822308088685943243400345975426883909096147339045273787325984512823244957423398055174828695879849942493712502158108081782163024167101957978799078692054106581518638832961868215165854308314877242675212188837955873975174727647247990393606326403876490500815929414980002030276198625866328310973421532151059071628038306926281825502507926893439321472535762059281448571817796845306517579637703981694846774635322811199431875663174162751403156127612351378340405058549628085390124779083962094777489309709766752481986327599769351343828713992159924065615106068412838813886565270542810886921193120790895042994364186375596015716254331672407180666306582326345460867181975252903332881845979999145141098787286539117576791635044116865176716309063466576180971588107298159543491564320012605624880056428982408094160945322909734375254637560779872935691072801422766106105016077161030768880774211449289008906840655161792691129673110760644874000744631018536155622276779954270891913007605935768473

Decrypted: 2699077189